Print 3D Buildings

Industrial technology has undergone constant evolution; this has created many benefits for people around the world. Our imaginative and inventive ancestors created paleolithic stone tool spearpoints, cutting tools, and developed the use of fire. Inventions that slowly improved from earlier versions, such as fabrication of ceramic items, melting of the iron, gold, and silver to create weapons and coins, continue to evolve. Now computer programs can be used to advance these inventions to produce manufactured items. Improvements to industrial processes have traditionally created an increase in the standard of living affecting all aspects of human society. In the current age of computer technology, 3d printers are putting civilization on the brink of a new threshold. Three-dimension computer-aided design (3DCAD) technology can now use 3D printers to create automated production of nearly everything (Autocad, n.d.). The utilization of this machine-made building technology can alleviate the extreme housing shortages caused by poverty, natural disasters, and the refugee crisis. This new technology can apply to twenty-first-century building construction by using automated 3D printing.

Contents

Demand for Housing  4

Refugee  5

Population growth  6

Response  7

Governmental 7

International Red Cross-Red Crescent (IFRC) 7

Housing Innovation  8

Imagination using 3D   8

Innovation  9

Production of 3D Models  12

3D method of accomplishment 12

Scale models  13

Figure 5 Model Photograph  14

Full-scale prototype  15

Figure 6 Demonstration  16

Entire neighborhoods  17

Figure 7 Sub-standard housing  17

Deployment 18

Disaster Remediation  19

Conclusion  21

Literature Review   22

Methods  25

Print 3D Building-composit 28

Funding  28

Limitations  30

Building codes  30

References  31

Appendix  34

Endnotes  35

Demand for Housing

People from the lower income levels, whose numbers have been growing globally, have the greatest need for affordable housing. Most governments generally accept this need, but little effort is committed to solving this problem. The increase in the global population and increasing material costs have combined with increasing effect to elevate the price of housing in every region. From the industrialized European countries such as Germany, the housing shortage has affected 850,000 people and may climb to 1.2 million by 2018 (Alkousaa, 2017). The main reason for this prediction was the 1.1 million migrants that have entered the country during the past few years.

Disaster

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) classifies the causes of damage:

Figure 1 FEMA Table

Table from (FEMA, 2019, p. 45)

• Earthquake

• Utility outage and impacts

• Fire

• Straight-line winds

• Flooding (include mudslide

• Tornado

• Hurricane or Typhoon

• Tsunami

• Landslide

• Terrorism

• Severe storm

• Volcanic Eruption

• Sewer back-up

Table 1 Various FEMA Classifications

Homelessness occurs for many reasons, and disasters are known to be a major cause of the increase. People in the developing countries who were involved in an environmental disaster had nowhere to turn when their dwellings were destroyed. But in an article on NBC news discussed the ICON Vulcan, which was designed specifically for the developing world, ICON co-founder Jason Ballard told NBC News MACH in an email. "The mobile printer fully prints onsite and does not require printing in an off-site location, nor does it need to piece together different portions," he said. "The entire home is printed seamlessly and is sustainable, produces nearly zero waste, and is resilient." The technology sounds nifty, but could 3D printing be part of a solution to the homelessness problem? (Maines, 2018).

Buildings located in areas within these known hazard zones can not survive the adverse environmental conditions when a disaster hits. Building codes are continuously improving to remove the shortcomings and unsound construction practices that prevailed when the previous buildings were built. There is a continuous effort by governments to identify ways to increase the resiliency of the buildings in disaster-prone areas. The changes to building codes are one example. Areas involved in seismic disturbances are defined in the uniform building code (UBC), which uses a seismic map showing zones of earthquake intensity. The UBC prescribes design requirements that require more resiliency in the new structures built there. Recent efforts to provide a global building code has produced the International Building Code (IBC).

Refugee

Political turmoil has forced many to flee their traditional homelands because of warfare. An example of some significant movements of refugees occurred during the twentieth century in the mid-east when 2 to 3 million Iraqi Kurds and Shi'ites arrived at the borders of Iran and Turkey following Saddam Hussein's genocidal attacks. Ethnic cleansing takes place in various regions such as the Balkan Peninsula, where 2.5 million were Yugoslavs have been expelled. Palestinians make up roughly one-third of Jordan's population after the Jews took over their homelands and forced them into exile (Loescher, 1996). According to a study by Susan Martin, there were an estimated 232 million international migrants in 2016 (Martin, 2016).

Population growth

The population of humans on planet earth is continuously growing (Cohen, 2005). This means new dwellings will be needed for millions of people. At the same time, natural resources are being rapidly exhausted so that resources will become less available. This creates a greater need for permanent housing. Short lifespan constructs like the Katrina FEMA trailers are not the answer. The remaining natural resources on planet earth, especially the non-renewable ones, need to be conserved. The development of 3D printers that use materials such as concrete are currently available according to a recent blog by (Lansard, Martin, 2017) describes house printing, and how it works. We can make the analogy with regular extrusion 3D printing. Construction 3D printing uses paste-type filament (such as concrete), which goes through a large-format extruder, in order to form layers. So a house 3D printer also uses FFF/FDM technology, but the volume is s bit larger! Thanks to house 3D printing, we can erect buildings faster, with biodegradable materials, an eco-friendly and community-focused opportunity! However, the technology is not yet available 3D print your dream house in one go. Some components, like windows, doors, plumbing, and wiring, will need to be manually installed (Lansard, Martin, 2017).

Recycling is another option, and the recycling of waste trash could be a valuable resource for constructing buildings. Early buildings were continuously rebuilt. There is archaeological evidence that the oldest known dwellings were rebuilt on top of previous floors (Benz, Alt, Erdal, & Ozkaya, 2018).

Disaster Response

Governmental

Most governments have borrowed against the equity of their countries to fund the annual budget.  The funding goes toward unbelievable projects that appear to be political donations in the trillions under the guise of essential defense allocations to the military-industrial giants. Most congressional members belong to the upper class and are less affected by this inflationary spiral. During the last few decades, this overborrowing has caused rapid inflation, which has decreased the value of the currency. That creation of a fiat[i] type of currency brought many of the citizens in their domains closer to bankruptcy. The result is that the standard of living for the silent majority has shown a steady decline. Lower standard of living has resulted in more young people living at home with their parents because they cannot afford a dwelling. Homelessness for those who have nowhere to go means more people living on the streets.

International Red Cross-Red Crescent (IFRC)

Most countries have a Red Cross or the Red Crescent; a non-government organization (NGO) can usually respond faster than government agencies. The volunteer organization consists of 14 million volunteers in 190 countries worldwide (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2020). They provide shelters, medical aid, and food supplies. They operate with near impunity in refugee torn regions where traditional governments are unwelcome.

Housing Innovation

Imagination using 3D

The oldest known attempts by the human imagination to create 3D images using paintbrush and pen technology represented by many art forms such as the Chauvet Cave paintings in France cave paintings, and the technical drawings of Leonardo da Vinci. The beginning of the data age began in the 1960s. This development led to the development of computer-generated imagery (CGI)[ii]. The computer revolutionized modern graphics design and data processing.

The obscure origin of virtual reality is difficult to find. There is no definitive timeline that determines what an attempt at virtual reality. One of the reasons why identifying an origin is difficult is that those who were trying to create a virtual reality didn't have a cohesive term to use when describing their work. It wasn't until the 1980s that Jaron Lanier of visual programming lab research coined the term (Pope, 2018). So though it did not have an established name until the mid-1980s, work was being done in this field far earlier (Pope, 2018).

Innovation in creative programs developed by Pioneer Charles W. Hull improved stereolithography[iii]. He acquired a United States Patent in 1984 (California USA Patent No. 4575330, 1986). One characteristic of this electronic format is that it can be scaled up or down without losing the quality. A digital design created in virtual space can represent an object of unlimited size and volume. CAD is the first software that enabled artists and drafting technicians to create 3D objects in virtual reality (VR).

Figure 2 Cad Design

CAD design of a simple frame structure

Note: CAD Image from an Autocad image showing a perspective and the "XYZ" origin point of the drawing

Innovation

Every individual appreciates the many benefits of modern innovation in the public domain. Current systems that the people in the working class take for granted today, such as indoor sanitary waste disposal, potable water, electrical distribution, and heating and cooling devices, were unheard of before the twentieth century. Some of the oldest structures found in recent archaeological excavations show the earliest innovations found in Gobekli Tepe in southern Turkey (Schmidt, 2000). As the industrial age began to improve, the social advancements continued to grow and develop. New solutions, designed to enhance social planning on a community scale, and the implementation of new building codes ensure public safety. These improvements to community planning added to a more comfortable, safe, and secure environment; protect property and life; and provide our needs.

The birth of 3D printing began with the print of a small plastic cup in the evening of 1983 by the acknowledged father of 3D printing Charles Hull (Hull C. W., 2015). Initially, the 3D printers produced small items with a low definition. The idea that larger format 3D printers could print houses began to be considered by printer manufacturers. Recently a company in China, WinSun Decoration Design Engineering, harnessed 3D printing to build ten one-story houses in one day (Golden, 2014). Many countries have shown interest in using this technology to build low-cost housing for the poor in their countries. Desktop printers can reproduce a scaled model of the actual size object, but larger printers can reproduce an actual model.

Many models describe the concept of innovation, and several are described by (Hassell, Wong, & Houser, 2003) in their book Building Better Homes.  The Linear Model is one of the most used. This shows progress in stages where each stage leads to the next stage.

Figure 3 Linear Model

1Rand Linear Model of the Innovation Process

In this model, the first step is the research stage, where researching a problem leads to the development of a solution. During the development phase, there is a trial and error process where many trials will eventually select the best prototype that will lead to a demonstration of the best prototype. The successful prototype will likely undergo improvements until deployment is made.

A more intuitive flow chart developed by the team at Rand, where the invention can prompt the knowledge base that will react to create more Research that can support the development of more knowledge. This can lead to a more diverse knowledge base to ct=reate a solution that can lead to the development of a prototype used in a product demonstration.

Figure 4 Non-Linear Model

Rand Model of the Non-Linear Method

Production of 3D Models

3D method of accomplishment

The process varies with the programs used in 3D printing, but the standard methods were outlined in a recent article by Bulent Yusef, where he identifies a series of concepts that generally apply to a 3D print. These are:

·       The tolerance which shows the ability for parts to fit together and is essential when creating something like joints. Ensure there is enough space for tolerancing when creating moving parts. The size should be considered for each model because the build plate should accommodate a fully sliced model. The model could be broken down into several smaller prints if the build plate cannot accommodate the scale required.

·       Infill in a non-solid reproduction should be considered because the consumption of filament should be kept at a minimum while maintaining the structural integrity of the product.

·       Rafts are temporary shoring that supports the creation of horizontal or less than 45 DEG angle constructs.

·       Overhang, anything with a horizontal slope over  45 DEG. doesn't usually need any support. (Yusuf, 2016)

Scale models

The growth of 3D prototype printers that can reproduce an actual sized model is on the upswing. An early inventor- a manufacturer in the US, is Icon, who is currently building a 3D printed community in a rural part of Mexico. The dwelling units are 500 square feet of living space built by a 33-foot long 3D printer. The printer uses a cement substance that is extruded in horizontal layers by a nozzle. The machine will run for 24 hours for each building. The device constructs the concrete floor and walls, but other components like windows and doors, cabinets, and the roof are installed after the main structure is built.

Figure 5

Photograph of a printed model

Note: The length of the virtual building is 1800 CM, and the model length is 30 Cm, so 1/60 scale(.  =60)

Sustainable housing concepts with low-cost approaches have been around for a long time. The idea of using durable materials like concrete and steel will assure that the structures built will last many generations. Unfortunately, the mindset of urban sprawl has caused the flatlander generations of plain dwellers to spread out to cover many thousands of square miles of the planet. The useable flat topography is natural to build infrastructures like roads and housing tracts, but it is quickly being used up. The idea of a single-family dwelling may not be the best way to approach future housing needs in the future.

Full-scale prototype

In 2018, ICON secured a building permit and printed the first dwelling in the United States. Enormous design, engineering, and field construction effort went into creating the house. This project served as the demonstration of the system to prepare for full-scale deployment. The next stage is the full-scale deployment.

Demonstration unit from Icon ready for deployment

Figure 6 Demonstration

Photo 1 from Iconbuild.com

It was printed with the ICON printer, which stands 11.5 feet tall, which can print structures up to 8.5' tall. The Vulcan spans 33 feet and can print on foundations up to 28 feet wide and unlimited length. This machine prints a 1 inch tall 2-inch wide bead with a linear speed of 5-7 inches per second (Peters, 2019).

Entire neighborhoods

A recent article by Adele Peters describes the construction of multiple units that formed an entire neighborhood (Peters, 2019). A large 3D printer built the walls of the first homes in the world's first 3D-printed neighborhood (Peters, 2019). The attempt to elevate impoverished people in southern Mexico led to the production of an entire village (Peters, 2019).

Figure 7 Sub-standard housing

People living in sub-standard housing will be the first in Mexico to benefit.

[Photo: Joshua Perez/courtesy New Story]

This village-wide project could be used in war-torn regions like Syria and Jordan, where thousands of people live in temporary refugee camps. They face an unknown future with no solution in sight. Maybe the Red Cross or Red Crescent could step in and provide funding for some new villages in war-torn regions?

Deployment

Two units constructed onsite in the first system deployment

[Photo: Joshua Perez/courtesy New Story]

The new owners first explored the houses were surprised that the dwellings stayed dry during heavy rains. (Peters, 2019) This kind of technology could be used to house the homeless all over the world.

The new system is resilient enough to provide shelter in the harshest environments. The future will undoubtedly bring about improvements to these early prototypes. Advancements in technology in printing will lead to the integration of doors, windows, copper wiring, and piping.   The future will see the integration of all systems, including heating-cooling power distribution recycling water distribution, etc. into the 3D process. It is evident that electrical, plumbing, photovoltaic production of electricity, and solar hot water will be invented (Weber, 2013).

Disaster Remediation

In the United States of America, the Federal Emergency Management Administration (FEMA) has been providing disaster relief following significant disasters that take place in the US and its territories. They use a systematic approach to define the scope of work (SOW) by developing a clear picture of what will be needed for support. This assessment will include categories based on the severity of the damage. Three basic work classes are repairs, restoration, and replacement of the entire damaged facility. A facility is classified as a component of civil infrastructures like a dam or highway bridge, a single-family residence, school, or other public buildings.

Scope of Work

The first step in identifying the SOW necessary to restore an area to a habitable condition is to create an estimate that will address a rough order of magnitude (ROM). The ROM has to broad and has cushion for the unexpected activities that will be identified after the in-depth analysis is obtained. This generally leads to budgeting and the creation of a rough schedule. The ROM will provide an outline where a detailed estimate (DE) can be created. This DE will include specific information that has an actual labor forecast, equipment type and hours required, and material specification needed to restore an area destroyed.  These are direct cost estimations that do not include indirect costs, which can be applied as a percentage of the final price. The incidental expenses are design, construction management, and overhead items such as tax transportation and equipment costs.

Repairs

Repairing civil infrastructures such as electric distribution, water supply, and transportation systems in phase 1 takes precedence because they are necessary for phase 2, which is providing shelter for the people made homeless and are in an exposed environment.

Infrastructure

Disasters that are natural such as earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, tornados, brushfire, can damage all civil infrastructure systems. The victims all need essential life-sustaining resources such as food, water, shelter, and clothing and, in many cases, injured will need medical assistance. Disasters that are humanmade like warzone refugee crisis where the people have fled their towns and villages because of war have similar needs. Both classes of refugees can live in temporary shelters or sports stadiums, school gymnasiums, and tent cities. The repairs to airports, roads, power distribution, water supply are often considered permanent, but the housing is usually temporary. While addressing the immediate threat to health and welfare is the first consideration, there is little consideration to long term services such as housing and sanitation. The lack of long-term housing can lead to further sociological stress in populations.

Timeframe

The immediate relief of the affected people is the first consideration during a FEMA reaction to a devastated area. Medicine, communications equipment, water, and food will be stored in advance, and deployment is available within 24 hours. Long term recovery for damaged or lost dwellings is usually not considered.

Conclusion

Due to many factors such as the migration of people into disaster-prone areas, the increased construction of substandard housing, and the higher density of people living in urban areas, the impact of future disasters will rise (Perrucci, Vazquez, & Aktas, 2016). The environmental stress caused by climate change increases the severity of natural disasters, and the frequency of these disasters is continuously on the rise. Historical cost data from FEMA has demonstrated a gradual increase in payouts since 1978. (see figure 1 in appendix A). These expenditures represent all categories; however, the expenses include a significant fraction of temporary housing costs. The temporary units provided during these disaster response efforts have outlived the expected lifespan and can be considered investment loss. It is possible to utilize modern 3D printing of buildings that can become a permanent value to the residents of disasters. These structures, which are constructed with recycled materials and concrete, will produce a building with a long lifespan. Construction of permanent buildings will leave a legacy for future people in the world.

Literature Review

The demand for shelter has been a defining issue with many civilizations in the past. Early civilization began with people settling in one place, creating villages at the birth of the agricultural revolution. The development of agriculture was an astonishing invention for early humans, and the construction of buildings was a necessity of the new civilization. The hunter-gatherers needed a place to shelter or pen their livestock and protect their agricultural produce from the elements. Dwellings were constructed by stacking rocks or using mud bricks to create protective enclosures. Remnants of an early culture were discovered at a site named Gobekli Tepe have shown advanced construction techniques dated eleven thousand years ago (Schmidt, 2000). Though it was considered a ceremonial site, other sites in the area from the same period have similar advanced construction techniques. One excavation at a nearby location at Kortik Tepe was a village where housing existed from about the same time (Benz, Alt, Erdal, & Ozkaya, 2018). These early archaeological examples define the beginning of building technology, which starts the timeline of building evolution that continues to this day. New methods, such as 3D printing of buildings, are based on the knowledge of those who invented the first techniques.

This construction occurred in an area in western Asia, generally referred to as the fertile crescent. The oldest constructed cities that have survived are in Southern Iraq. The largest cities were called ziggurats constructed around four thousand years ago. These massive constructs above the floodplain of the Tigris-and Euphrates Rivers built to house people and their food supply in times of flooding.

Human dwelling techniques have changed little in the time that has elapsed since then. Bricks and mortar, lumber products, and asphalt products used in pre-historic times are conventional materials in every region in the world today. The science of engineering and the art of architecture is inventive when using those primary materials in many new ways. New materials introduced during the industrial era, such as steel, plastic, and glass, have further expanded the style of human habitat.

One source used in this research paper is Building Better Homes by (Hassell, Wong, & Houser, 2003). This book, published by Rand Science and Technology Policy Institute, identifies government strategies used in modern times for promoting innovations in housing. This book, war created in response to a request by the US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), Office of Policy Development and Research, and the Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing (PATH).

It is vital to develop new methods and materials as the human population swells toward eight billion. Many adverse conditions, such as warfare, natural disasters, and overpopulation, have led to the loss of people's property. This has created an environment where many people have lost their housing. One just has to watch the news to see thousands of buildings in the mid-east where entire cities have been destroyed. Climate change has brought about environmental changes in temperature, rainfall, and tragic weather events that have left them vulnerable to face harmful conditions.

Building Better Homes research has tried to develop more insight into the process of innovation and the role of government and industry play. The movement toward a better solution for humanity's plight will evolve along with the toolset of modern society evolves.

The development of computer technology has come about as an aid to support future changes in fabrication. 3D printing is a synthesis of two of the new technologies that merge traditional materials and modern industrial technology. This process is in its infancy but can swiftly bring about a quantum leap if promoted by governments and industry. This book, first published in 2003, contains a lot of valid information but, much of the information is outdated.

Although this resource describes the efforts of governments to promote innovation, there is an issue that is missing. That is a built-in resistance in capitalist and communist societies to keep a system static. Western capitalism is influenced by two factors that would prove an impediment towards a technical solution of printing dwellings and other buildings. These are the trade unions, and building contractors who would suffer a reduction of their substantive incomes.

Try to imagine a building construction technology that requires little or no human resources to create buildings. Mass production using an assembly line type of construction was prevalent at the beginning of the industrial age. The use of 3D systems uses this low-cost method of mass production.

Millions of workers would be out of work, and the trade unions that are dependent on membership fees would go broke. The contractor's project load would collapse, and they would be out of work. Governments who rely on money from their income tax scheme would find that revenue stream would disappear. Most capitalist countries would have trouble endorsing government support for these types of projects. The Red Cross and Red Crescent may be able to fill the gap in our capitalist societies. Permanent housing for economically dispossessed citizens would provide a stable and healthy environment for many people living in the streets.

Visualize ten 3D printers set up in Iraq near the site of an ancient ziggurat producing 200 houses a week for the impoverished descendants of the first city builders.

Methods

One book that attempts to identify the innovative process, is the Building Better Homes: Government strategies for Promoting innovation in housing. This article develops a systematic approach to the understanding of innovation aspects of housing, and how the federal government has promoted this creative process. The historical evolution of construction practices reflects humanity's improvements to the paleolithic stone tools used by our predecessors and the utilization of natural materials. The continuous development of better homes has induced overall improvements to civilization. This process is a fundamental part of the human character; to build upon the inventions of their predecessors. The development of my topic for the term paper, which is 3D printing begins with the creative imagination that is inherent in human creativity. There have been constant attempts to "build a better mousetrap" as time marches on, (From the old saying, "If you build a better mousetrap, the world will beat a path to your door." (Emerson, 1882).

The table of contents page for this book gives an outline of the chain of thought developed throughout the chapters. The initial chapter attempts to define what innovation is and begins to list the benefits of the innovative process of housing. Questions are discussed as to what innovation is and how it progresses, is it a linear model or a non-linear model? The standard linear model describes a function, such as research, leading to another function, such as development. The innovation process seems simple, but when it is analyzed, there are many pathways. Some research is necessary to expand the knowledge base. This additional knowledge will contribute to the improvement of the invention. With enhanced knowledge progress in further development can occur. Additional improvement of material knowledge and technologies may be required to be developed to move toward further development.

Non-Linear model

Figure 1: Flowchart of the R&D Process (Hassell, Wong, & Houser, 2003)

The inventive process is non-linear in this model; many pathways lead to a refinement of the initial invention. There are market-driven improvements after a product is released for public consumption; this leads to "returning to the drawing board" for another run through the invention process.

Research for this paper began in January 2020 and continued until the conclusion of the Print 3D Building term paper. The research into the publications of twenty publications and multiple websites produced an enormous amount of material. The focus of this project is to understand low-cost housing needs and a method to supply the need by creating low-cost housing. The pathway to understanding this solution has many dimensions.

The acquisition of a 3D printer was a component of this project. A 3D Tron X-Y printer was selected from dozens of similar printers being offered for sale on Amazon.com. This printer was selected after exhaustive efforts to find a low cost from an online printing company. The quotations I received for the printing of a 300mm by 300mm object was in the twelve to fourteen hundred dollar range. The printer I acquired was three hundred dollars with an additional eighty dollars for five filament coils of five different thermoplastics. These were for experimental test prints and consisted of PLA[iv], PLA-WD[v], Abs[vi], TPU[vii] , and PETG[viii]. Each coil weighed an average of 1 kilogram (KG).

The printer arrived within a week and required partial assembly. Major frame sections were joined with supplied fasteners, then build plate, control box, and wiring were connected. The assembled printer was ready to print in about an hour. The computer hardware used for the development of the 3D model was a Toshiba S55t-B5233 laptop with a 1 Terrabyte (TB) SSD and 16 GB of RAM. Monitors were twin AK242HYL 24" Diagonal full HD (1920 x 1080) LCDs. The design software used to create the digital model was Autocad Architecture V2020, 64 Bit Version. The 18 Meter by model first printed was the 18 Meter by 4.5 Meter Greenhouse with a file size of approximately 1.8 megabytes (MB). This model was split into two objects, which were the wall and grade beam and the roof beams. This reduces the "support structure" that the printer will create when an object is less than a 45% slope. The printing of the two portions of the model was printed separately, and each required approximately ten hours of print time.

Print 3D Building-composit

The heart of the research for this paper is to gain an understanding of the creative process and the ability of innovation to create new technology. An advanced capability such as printing of a 3D building is a new tool that humankind can utilize to provide low-cost permanent buildings that are more efficient. These buildings require little human labor, produce minuscule waste products, and can provide shelters that will last hundreds of years. Solar-powered 3D printers could be sent to the moon or other planets to begin human colonization efforts.

The advancement of machine technology is a byproduct of the evolution of the industrial age. Computer-driven auto production was integrated into the assembly line years ago and is used globally now. The ability of these new systems, developed in the twentieth century, has been recently adapted to support the production of buildings in the twenty-first century.

Funding

The need for housing for displaced refugees, poor and disenfranchised populations, and disaster victims is widely accepted. Nearly all funding from NGO's like the Red Crescent-Red Cross, and government relief organizations like FEMA focus on the short-term needs. There is an opportunity now to utilize the new technology to create a permanent solution to the crisis by building permanent structures using similar funding spent on short term disposable structures. The FEMA annual budget shows ever-increasing expenditures on disaster management (FEMA, 2019).

Figure 2FEMA Costs per Year

Trendline of FEMA disaster expenditures showing annual increases.

The direct response costs include a substantial amount for temporary housing. Disaster funding could create permanent housing using 3D printing. Creating 3D Printed Buildings instead of temporary shelters would provide a permanent habitat for humanity's future needs, which would provide long-term value for funds invested.

Private funding is market-driven and rarely provides resources for public housing or low-cost community development. Occasionally government funding will provide opportunities for new technologies. One project built on the US Territory of Guam in 1995 used polystyrene, stay in place hollow block container. These units had extremely high insulative value and were structurally designed for an area with the highest sustained wind and largest earthquake area in the world.

Limitations

The first generation of 3D printers in use today only build the interior and exterior walls. This requires post-printing support, which adds time and cost to the shell. Door and window openings are created and quickly filled with the pre-made component. Electrical and plumbing systems are not currently printed and must be added if they cannot be integrated during the printing process. The 3D building printers print using a nozzle that extrudes a mortar paste. The printed walls may require finishing, such as painting. Waterproofing in shower compartment walls is required after the structure is complete.

Building codes

Building codes are prescriptive and are intended to produce buildings with a high-quality standard. Local jurisdictions enforce these codes on people who may not require such a large amount of space, electrical outlets. People living in cardboard and tin shacks are not expected to build an American-European style house. This population of economically deprived people would benefit from a building without a high degree of quality typically required in the west. FEMA uses a proprietary code for the structures they build. Projects in 3rd world countries do not usually have building codes but would benefit from a minimal structural code.

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Appendix

 A. Figure 3 Scatterplot showing increasing annual expenditures for disaster costs

Figure 6 Disaster cost per year, 1978-2018, (FEMA, 2019)

Endnotes

[i] Fiat Currency is money without intrinsic value that only has value based on the government established value.

[ii] CGI Is the application of computer graphics to create visual representations of physical and imaginary objects.

[iii] Steriolithographic system for generating a 3D object using a layering method. This slicing process creates a multiple of cross sectional slices that can be reproduced by a 3D printer.

[iv] PLA (poly lactic acid)is a bio-degradable type of plastic that is manufactured out of plant-based resources such as corn starch or sugar cane. This is why it is called ‘the green plastic’. Be sure to throw it in a filament recycler and you’re as green as can be.

[v] PLA-WD material made from polylactides (PLA) and wood fibres is a wood plastic composite (WPC), which can be recycled in composting plants. It is suitable for injection moulding and extrusion on conventional plastics processing machines. Wood plastic composite combines the properties of both wood and plastics: the products are mouldable like plastics and firm like wood.

[vi]ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) is a thermoplastic resin commonly used for injection molding applications. ABS Plastic is a copolymer of Acrylonitrile, Butadiene, and Styrene, and generally possess medium strength and performance at medium cost.

[vii] TPU Thermoplastic polyurethane is any of a class of polyurethane plastics with many properties, including elasticity, transparency, and resistance to oil, grease and abrasion. Technically, they are thermoplastic elastomers consisting of linear segmented block copolymers composed of hard and soft segments. 

[viii] PETG Polyethylene terephthalate glycol,is a thermoplastic polyester that provides significant chemical resistance, durability, and excellent formability for manufacturing.